AN ANALYSIS OF PARTS OF SPEECH, CONTENT AND FUNCTION WORDS AND PHRASE

1. Parts of Speech

The parts of speech are categories used to organize or classify words according to how they are used. We use parts of speech as a way to make it easier to talk about language. We usually use eight categories of parts of speech to classify all the words we use in English. This classification is not perfect. Sometimes it is hard to tell which category a word belongs in. the same word may belong in different categories depending on how it is used. there may be better ways to classify English than by using the eight parts of speech. But this classification has been used foa a long time and many grammar books use it, so it is easier to keep on using it. It is possible to speak or learn a language without knowing the parts of speech, but for most of us, knowing about parts of speech makes things easier.

The eight parts of speech that are used to describe English words are :

1.       Nouns

From Internet
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing.  Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing.

Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns.  Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing.  Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun.  Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter.

Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one.  For example, we say one book but two books.  Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -es (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person - people, mouse - mice, sheep - sheep).

From Literatur

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:

Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.

Portia White was an opera singer.

The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.

According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.

Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

My opinion as follows:

NOUN: These name persons, things, places, ideas -- can be concrete or abstract. EX: Stephanie, door, biology, honor.

 2. Verbs

A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence.  In the sentence The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence.  In the sentence She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.

Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form.  Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught).  The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries(do, have, will, etc.)  to give them different meanings.

One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time.  Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now.  For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense.  Some examples of verbs  in each tense are in the chart below:

Present	Past	Future
look	Looked	will look
move	Moved	will move
Talk	Talked	will talk

Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs.  Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned.  Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:  

Present	Past	Future
See	Saw	will see
Hear	Heard	will hear
Speak	Spoke	will speak

The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs.  There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action.  These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:

Present Continuous	Present Perfect
is looking	has looked
is speaking	has spoken
is talking	has talked

Simple present tense verbs have a special form for the third person singular.

A verb must "agree" with its subject. Subject-verb agreement generally means that  the third person singular verb form must be used with a third person subject in the simple present tense. The  word be - the most irregular and also most common verb in English - has different forms for each person and even for the simple past tense.  The forms of the word be are given in the chart below:

Number	Person	Present	Past	Future
Singular	1st (I)	am	was	will be
	2nd (you)	are	were	will be
	3rd (he, she, it)	is	was	will be
Plural	1st (we)	are	were	will be
	2nd (you)	are	were	will be
	3rd (they)	are	were	will be

Usually a subject comes before a verb and an object may come after it.  hat does the action of the verb and the object is what receives the action.  In the sentence Bob ate a humburger, Bob is the subject or the one who did the eating and the hamburger is the object or what got eaten.  A verb which has an object is called a transitive verb and some examples are throw, buy, hit, love.  A verb which has no object is called an intransitive verb and some examples are go, come, walk, listen.

As you can see in the charts above, verbs are often made up of more than one word. The future forms, for example, use the word will and the perfect forms use the word have.  These words are called helping or auxiliary verbs.  The word be can serve as an auxiliary and will and shall are also auxiliary forms. The chart below shows two other verbs which can also be used as auxiliaries:
 

Number	Person	Present	Past
Singular	1st (I)	have do	had did
	2nd (you)	have do	had did
	3rd (he, she, it)	has does	had did
Plural	1st (we)	have do	had did
	2nd (you)	have do	had did
	3rd (they)	have do	had did

`There is a type of auxiliary verb called a modal which changes the meaning of a verb in different ways.  Words like can, should, would, may, might, and must are modals and are covered in other lessons.

From Literatur

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.

In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:

Dracula bites his victims on the neck.

The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.

In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.

Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.

My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.

In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.

Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.

In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place in the past.

My opinion as follows:

VERB: These state an action or a state of being. EX: kick, call, create, is, will be. Verbs can be transitive, meaning that they act on something else, or intransitive, meaning that they don't. EX: Transitive: Walter kicked the football. Intransitive: I was asleep. Verbs can also be linking verbs, meaning that they connect a subject to a word or group of words which describe or complete its meaning. EX: The car was blue and full of bullet holes.

3. Adjectives

From Internet

An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.  Adjectivesdescribe nouns in terms of  such qualities as size, color, number, and kind.  In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazyis an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog.  We can add  more adjectives to describe the dogas well as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug.  We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives.

Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word beas in The man is tall.  More than one adjective can be used in this position  in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives.

Most adjectivesdo not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural.  For example we saybig tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times.  There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular andplural forms.  The common words this and thathave the plural formsthese andthose. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to.

Another common type of adjective is the possessive adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogsbelong to me.  I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogsbelonged to me and other people.  The chart below shows the forms of possessive adjectives.
 

Person*	Singular	Plural
1st Person	my	our
2nd Person	your	your
3rd Person	his/her/its	their

·         *Personis used here as a grammar word and has these meanings:
1st person or the self (I, me, we),
2nd person or the person spoken to (you)
3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).

From Literatur

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."

Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence

Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.

GENDER

Istilah gender yang digunakan, khususnya oleh Kantor Menteri Negara Urusan Peranan Wanita adalah “interpretasi mental dan kultural terhadap perbedaan kelamin yakni laki-laki dan perempuan”. Gender biasanya dipergunakan untuk menunjukkan pembagian kerja yang dianggap tepat bagi laki-laki dan perempuan.

Dalam Webster’s New World Dictionary (1984), gender diartikan sebagai “perbedaan yang tampak antara laki-laki dan perempuan dilihat dari segi nilai dan tingkah laku”. Dalam Women’s Studies Encyclopedia (Vol I:153) diartikan sebagai “suatu konsep kultural yang berupaya membuat pembedaan dalam hal peran, perilaku, mentalitas dan karakteristik emosional antara laki-laki dan perempuan yang berkembang dalam masyarakat”.

Definisi yang dikemukakan Peter R.Beckman dan Francine D’Amico, Eds. (1994) mengartikan gender sebagai karakteristik sosial yang diberikan kepada perempuan dan laki-laki. Karakteristik sosial ini merupakan hasil perkembangan sosial dan budaya sehingga tidak bersifat permanen maupun universal. Berdasarkan karakteristik sosial ditetapkan peran untuk laki-laki dan perempuan yang pantas. Akibatnya timbul asosiasi, bahwa dunia publik bersifat maskulin dan pantas untuk pria, dan dunia privat, domestik dan rumah tangga bersifat feminin adalah milik perempuan .

Dari beberapa definisi tersebut tampak bahwa gender bukanlah hal yang kondrati tapi hasil konstruksi sosial dan budaya, dan manifestasinya di setiap masyarakat bisa saja berbeda. Perbedaan gender termanifestasikan dalam berbagai bentuk ketidak adilan sebagai berikut ini:

1. Marginalisasi. Ini terjadi di tempat kerja, rumah tangga, masyarakat atau kultur, bahkan negara. Sumber marginalisasi bisa berasal dari kebijakan pemerintah, tafsiran agama, keyakinan, tradisi dan kebiasaan atau bahkan asumsi ilmu pengetahuan .

2. Subordinansi. Ini berkaitan dengan anggapan bahwa perempuan itu irrasional atau emosional sehingga perempuan dianggap tidak bisa tampil memimpin. Dalam keluarga yang terbatas secara ekonomi, masih ada yang memutuskan anak laki-laki mendapat prioritas utama untuk disekolahkan. Akibatnya, kondisi ini memunculkan sikap yang menempatkan perempuan pada posisi yang tidak penting.

3. Stereotipe, berkaitan dengan pelabelan terhadap kelompok tertentu. Misalnya, pelabelan yang berawal dari asumsi bahwa perempuan bersolek untuk menarik perhatian lawan jenis, sehingga setiap ada kasus pelecehan maupun kekerasan, selalu dikaitkan dengan stereotip ini. Bahkan jika ada perkosaan yang dialami oleh perempuan, masyarakat cenderung menyalahkan korbannya. Masyarakat beranggapan bahwa tugas utama perempuan adalah melayani suami.

4. Tindak Kekerasan terhadap fisik maupun integritas mental seseorang. Bentuk yang bisa dikategorikan kekerasan gender antara lain : (a) pemerkosaan terhadap perempuan, termasuk perkosaan dalam perkawinan; (b) tindakan pemukulan dan serangan fisik; (c) penyiksaan yang mengarah pada organ alat kelamin, misalnya penyunatan terhadap anak perempuan; (d) pelacuran, merupakan bentuk kekerasan yang diselenggarakan oleh suatu mekanisme ekonomi yang merugikan perempuan; (e) pornografi, yang termasuk kekerasan non fisik, yakni pelecehan terhadap kaum perempuan, di mana tubuh perempuan dijadikan obyek demi keuntungan seseorang atau sekelompok orang; (f) pemaksaan sterilisasi dalam program Keluarga Berencana; (g) kekerasan terselubung (molestation), yakni memengang atau menyentuh bagian tertentu dari tubuh perempuan tanpa kerelaan si pemilik tubuh; (h) pelecehan seksual (sexual and emotional harassment) yang bisa dikategorikan ke dalam beberapa bentuk, yakni: menyampaikan lelucon jorok dan vulgar, menyakiti atau membuat malu seseorang dengan omongan kotor, menginterogasi seseorang tentang kehidupan atau kegiatan seksualnya atau kehidupan pribadinya; meminta imbalan seksual dalam rangka janji untuk mendapatkan kerja atau promosi lainnya. Dilihat dari situsnya, kekerasan dapat dibedakan menjadi kekerasan domestik dan kekerasan publik. Kekerasan domestik terdiri dari tiga jenis, yaitu : intimate violence, private violence dan family violence. Kekerasan publik meliputi segala bentuk pelecehan seksual dan serangan seksual yang dilakukan di tempat-tempat publik. Dalam masyarakat modern, bentuk-bentuk kekerasannya lebih kompleks, tidak saja bersifat fisik tetapi juga psikologis. Tidak juga hanya bersifat seksual personal, tetapi juga struktural, misalnya pelecehan seksual, pelacuran dan pornografi.

5. Beban Kerja. Pekerjaan domestik rumah tangga dianggap lebih cocok bagi perempuan, dinilai lebih rendah dan dikategorikan bukan produktif dibandingkan dengan pekerjaan lelaki yang berada di wilayah publik sehingga tidak diperhitungkan dalam statistik ekonomi. Keadaan menjadi berat bila perempuan juga bekerja di wilayah publik karena mereka memikul beban kerja ganda. Di pihak lain, kaum laki-laki tidak diwajibkan secara kultural untuk menekuni berbagai pekerjaan domestik sehingga mereka hanya mempunyau beban tunggal.

II.2 Pelanggaran Kesusilaan

Dalam KUHP, kejahatan kesusilaan yang berkaitan dengan tindak kekerasan itu antara lain mencakup pornografi, perbuatan cabul, perkosaan, pelacuran, perdagangan wanita, aborsi, maupun penggunaan anak di bawah umur untuk pekerjaan berbahaya. Bila dikaitkan dengan permasalahan gender, pelanggaran kesusilaan erat kaitannya dengan tindak kekerasan fisik maupun integritas mental seseorang dan cenderung merupakan kekerasan publik.

Kasus-kasus tindak kekerasan tersebut , dari tahun ke tahun semakin berkembang kuantitas maupun kualitasnya. Pada awal tahun 70 an, pornografi masih sebatas gambar-gambar perempuan dalam majalah-majalah hiburan dengan menggunakan pakaian renang. Buku-buku ataupun gambar-gambar pornografi beredar secara sembunyi-sembunyi sehingga untuk memperolehnya cukup sulit. Pelacuran terkonsentrasi di tempat-tempat tertentu dan seringkali terselubung, kasus-kasus perkosaan terjadi antar orang yang sudah dewasa, aborsi dan perdagangan wanita masih sangat terselubung sehingga sulit untuk menditeksinya.

Kini, pornografi sudah menjadi makanan sehari-hari yang mudah didapat kapan saja dan oleh siapa saja. Mulai dari majalah, novel maupun tabloid kuning yang dijajakan di pinggir jalan, film-film biru, telepon sex (party-line), hingga situs porno di internet, dengan mudah dapat diperoleh. Pelacuran bahkan ditawarkan melalui iklan-iklan media cetak seperti layaknya barang dagangan. Perbuatan cabul dan perkosaan dilakukan tidak hanya pada orang dewasa tapi juga pada anak-anak di bawah usia 10 tahun dan dilakukan oleh orang-orang yang sudah dikenal dekat bahkan di antara anggota keluarga.Beberapa kasus perkosaan berakhir dengan pembunuhan. Aborsi sudah bukan “barang aneh” lagi. Perdagangan wanita dewasa maupun anak-anak untuk tujuan pelacuran dilakukan hingga ke mancanegara, bahkan di beberapa daerah diduga dibantu keluarganya, oknum aparat pemerintah setempat maupun oknum aparat kepolisian. Kehidupan seks di kota metropolitan bahkan menawarkan gaya hidup baru, seperti tukar pasangan, nudies party, dan lain-lain.

A.G.L

“ jikalau hidup harus untuk terus menahan sakit untuk melihat senyummu yang tak bisa ku miliki, aku rela.. Andai hidup hanya mimpi yang tak dapat diraih dalam nyata, aku rela tidur selamanya. Untuk mu, Reina. Kusayangi kau dalam sakitku.  AGL.. “

huuh.. aku menghela nafas. Lagi-lagi sebuah surat tanpa nama yang menyambutku pagi ini diatas meja kelasku. Sudah seminggu ini aku menerima surat gelap seperti ini. Entah dari siapa. Hanya berinisial AGL.
“hei, pagi-pagi ngelamun..” Ariska mengagetkanku, “kenapa??” tambahnya setelah memperhatikan raut wajah ‘tak enak’ ku. Aku menyodorkan surat itu padanya. Dia membacanya dengan serius “hmm..” hanya itu yang keluar dari mulutnya.
“gue heran deh ka, kenapa sih tu orang ga mau nongol aja depan gue, kenapa mesti surat gelap terus kayak gini, toh sekarang juga gue jomblo.” Huff.. aku benar-benar kesal.
Ariska yang ku ajak bicara hanya diam saja, “nah ini anak diajak ngomong malah diem aja” tambah ku kesal. Ariska adalah sahabat baikku dari aku masih kecil, kami bertetangga, rumahnya bersebrangan dengan rumahku. Dia seumur denganku, tapi sikap nya jauh lebih dewasa daripada aku.
“mungkin dia punya alasan kenapa dia ga berani langsung ketemu sama lo ,rein.” Ujarnya.
Hmm.. masuk akal.
“tapi gue ga suka ka, masalahnya hal ini bikin gue jadi penasaran. Pokoknya lo harus bantu gue nemuin siapa yang suka banget ngirim surat ini ke gue. OK?” aku benar-benar bersemangat. Ariska hanya tersenyum.